The 5Cs of survival devised by David Canterbury

The 5Cs of survival devised by David Canterbury

The 5Cs of survival devised by David Canterbury

Survival expert Dave Canterbury has popularised a framework known as the ‘5 Cs of Survival’ which outlines the essential tools and resources needed to survive in the wilderness. These five components are critical for ensuring safety, securing resources, and maintaining overall well-being in a survival situation. We explore each of the 5 Cs in detail, providing practical insights and applications for outdoor enthusiasts and survivalists.

1. Cutting Tools

A reliable cutting tool is the cornerstone of survival gear. Whether it’s a knife, multitool, or axe, a good cutting tool can be used for a variety of tasks, including food preparation, building shelter, and making other essential tools. Following the principle of ‘two is one, one is none’, allowing for redundancy, it’s a good idea to carry a primary cutting tool, like a fixed blade sheath knife, and a backup cutting tool, like a pocket multitool. The fixed blade sheath knife offers durability and versatility and is lighter and easier to carry than an axe. 

Please note that in some countries, like the U.K., it is illegal to “carry most knives or any weapons in public without a ‘good reason”. It is legal to carry a non-locking pocket knife with a cutting edge of no longer than 3 inches. A locking knife is seen as a ‘fixed blade knife.

Key uses of cutting tools

Building Shelter – Cutting branches and shaping materials for a makeshift shelter.

Fire Making – Preparing kindling, shaving wood for fire starting and splitting logs no thicker than ⅔ of the cutting edge length. If your knife as a ‘square edge’ back (square spine) then this can be used with a fire striker (flint/chert) or ferro rod.

Food Preparation – Cleaning fish, game, and cutting edible plants.

 

2. Combustion Devices

Fire is crucial for warmth, cooking, and signalling for help. Carrying reliable combustion devices like a lighter/storm-proof matches (open flame), ferro rod/flint and steel (spark) and a fresnel lens/magnifying glass (solar), ensures you can create fire under various conditions. You should always carry a minimum of two different combustion devices allowing for different conditions, a lighter and ferro rod being the most common.

Key uses of combustion devices

Warmth – Prevent hypothermia by maintaining body temperature.

Cooking – Prepare safe and nutritious meals.

Signalling – Use smoke and light to attract rescuers’ attention.

Wildlife – Keeping wild animals away (most, but not all, wild animals are scared of fire).

 

3. Cover (Shelter)

Shelter is vital for protection against the elements. Adequate cover helps maintain body temperature and shields you from wind, rain, snow, and sun. Shelter is essential for survival as in extreme environments we can die from hypo or hyperthermia within hours. At an absolute minimum we should carry a space blanket (foil blanket). Ideally we should have a tent, durable tarp/poncho or a bivvy bag.

A basic principle of shelter is that your clothing is your first line of shelter. Layered clothing provides excellent protection from the elements and should consist of a base layer (to wick moisture away from our bodies), a mid-layer for warmth (pullover/fleece), an outer layer (jacket/wind-breaker) for additional warmth and a waterproof layer (packable jacket with rain pants).

In addition to your clothing you need something to sleep on (mat/inflatable mattress/browse bed), something to sleep under (tent/taro/poncho/debris shelter) and something to sleep in (sleeping bag/bivvy bag/blanket).

Key uses of shelter

Protection from weather – Stay dry and warm to avoid hypothermia.

Rest – Ensure a good rest to maintain energy and morale.

Safety – Create a barrier against insects and wild animals.

 

4. Container

Containers are essential for water collection, purification, and storage. Dehydration can be fatal, making it imperative to have a means to store and transport water. Single wall stainless steel/titanium water bottles/canteens that can be used to boil water directly in are the most versatile. These should ideally be used with a ‘nesting cup’ made of the same material that can be used to cook or boil water in.

Key uses of a container

Water Collection – Gather water from streams, lakes, or rain.

Purification – Boil water to eliminate pathogens.

Storage – Carry sufficient water to stay hydrated.

 

5. Cordage

Cordage is versatile and indispensable for various survival tasks. It can be used for building shelters, making traps, and repairing gear. Paracord is highly recommended due to its strength and multiple uses. Paracord can either be used as is or broken down into it’s individual components (strands) for thinner cord. Tarred Mariner’s bank-line is excellent as an additional cordage.

Key uses of cordage

Shelter Building – Secure tarps and construct frames.

Gear Repair – Fix broken equipment and clothing.

Traps and Tools – Create snares and fishing lines for food.

 

Integrating the  first 5 Cs into Your Survival Kit

When preparing your survival kit, ensure each of the 5 Cs is represented. This balanced approach equips you to handle various challenges and increases your chances of survival. 

Example Base Survival Kit

Cutting Tool: – Fixed-blade knife.

Combustion Device – Waterproof matches and a ferro rod.

Cover – Space blanket and tarp.

Container – Stainless steel water bottle with nesting cup.

Cordage – 5m of paracord.

 

Understanding and integrating the 5 Cs of survival can dramatically enhance your readiness and confidence in the wilderness. Inspired by Dave Canterbury’s practical and proven survival strategies, these essentials provide a robust foundation for any survival scenario. Whether you’re a seasoned adventurer or a novice outdoor enthusiast, prioritising these core elements will prepare you to face the unexpected with resilience and resourcefulness.

 

References

Canterbury, D. (2011), Bushcraft 101: A Field Guide to the Art of Wilderness Survival, New York: Adams Media.

 

DISCLAIMER

The information provided in this article is for educational and informational purposes only and is not intended as professional advice. While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the information, the author and publisher make no representations or warranties of any kind, express or implied, about the completeness, accuracy, or suitability of the information contained in this article for any purpose. The author and publisher shall not be held responsible for any adverse effects or consequences resulting from the use of any information, suggestions, or recommendations presented in this article.

In survival scenarios, conditions can vary widely and unpredictably. The strategies and recommendations discussed are general guidelines and may not be suitable for every individual or situation. Always use personal judgment and consider your unique circumstances when applying any information from this article.

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Fuelling your adventure – Basic nutrition for Outdoor Activities

Fuelling your adventure – Basic nutrition for Outdoor Activities

Fuelling your adventure – Basic nutrition for Outdoor Activities

Spending time outdoors can be hungry work, especially when doing something particular active like hiking, climbing, trail running or paddling and requires proper nutrition to ensure you have the energy and stamina to enjoy every moment. Understanding the basics of human nutrition is key to maximising your outdoor experiences. What are the essential aspects of nutrition for outdoor activities? What are calories, essential nutrients, and how should we prioritise our diet for optimal performance.

A camp fire at the side of a beautiful lake at sunset.

What are calories?

Calories are units of energy that our bodies need to function. When we consume food, our bodies convert the nutrients into energy, measured in calories. This energy fuels every activity, from basic metabolic processes to strenuous physical exertion during outdoor activities.

Why are calories important?

Calories are crucial because they provide the energy required for bodily functions and physical activities. Without adequate calorie intake, you may experience fatigue, reduced cognitive function, and impaired physical performance. For outdoor enthusiasts, maintaining proper energy levels is essential to tackle long hikes, climbs, or other strenuous activities.

Daily caloric needs

The number of calories you need per day depends on various factors, including age, gender, weight, height, and activity level. On average adult women need 1,800 to 2,400 calories per day and adult men need 2,200 to 3,000 calories per day.

Outdoor activities increase caloric needs significantly. A person engaging in a full day of hiking or other vigorous activities may require 500 to 1,000 extra calories to maintain energy levels and prevent fatigue.

Are all calories equal?

While a calorie is a measure of energy, not all calories are created equal in terms of nutritional value. The source of calories – whether from carbohydrates, proteins, or fats – affects how the body utilises them.

Carbohydrates are a primary, quick energy source, particularly important for high-intensity activities, crucial for immediate physical demands and are found in fruits, vegetables, grains, and legumes.

Proteins repair tissues, build muscles, and support immune function and are essential for muscle repair and growth. Found in meat, dairy, nuts, and beans.

Fats give us long-term energy storage, hormone production, and cell integrity, providing long-lasting energy and supporting cell function. Found in oils, nuts, seeds, and fatty fish.

Empty calories from sugary snacks or processed foods provide energy but lack essential nutrients, making them less beneficial for sustained energy and overall health.

Vitamins and Minerals are not calories but are essential for various bodily functions, including bone health, immune support, and energy metabolism. Key vitamins include A, C, D, E, and the B-complex group. Important minerals include calcium, iron, magnesium, and potassium.

 

How long can you go without food?

Many people make the common mistake of thinking that food is a survival priority in a survival situation. It isn’t. Whilst food is important the human body can survive for several weeks without food, depending on factors like body fat and overall health. 

Typically, a person can survive without food for about 30 to 40 days if they have adequate water intake. Immediate survival priorities are personal safety and air (breathing), then shelter, then water and only then food. We are unlikely to survive for longer than 3 minutes without air, 3 hours without shelter (hyper or hypothermia) and 3 days without water (depending on the environment and how quickly we are dehydrating).

However, energy levels, cognitive function, and physical performance decline significantly after a few days without food, highlighting the importance of regular nutrition during outdoor activities. We need to keep in mind that whilst we can survive for weeks without food we will not thrive! We need food in order to sustain ourselves for any period of time.

 

Prioritising Nutrition: Protein, carbohydrates, or vitamins and minerals?

For outdoor activities, prioritise your nutrition in the following order:

  1. Carbohydrates – Ensure an immediate energy supply to fuel your activities.
  2. Proteins – Support muscle repair and recovery, especially after strenuous activity.
  3. Fats – Provide sustained energy for longer durations and support overall health.
  4. Vitamins and minerals – Ensure a balanced intake to support various bodily functions and prevent deficiencies.

In a survival situation, it’s crucial to focus on foods that provide the most calories and essential nutrients with the least amount of effort. Here are some key considerations and food options to prioritise:

High-Calorie, Nutrient-Dense Foods

1. Nuts and Seeds

   – Calories per 100g: 500-700 kcal

   – Nutrient Benefits: High in healthy fats, protein, and essential vitamins and minerals (e.g., almonds, peanuts, sunflower seeds).

2. Dried Fruits

   – Calories per 100g: 200-300 kcal

   – Nutrient Benefits: Good source of carbohydrates, vitamins, and fiber (e.g., raisins, apricots, dates).

3. Jerky (Biltong)

   – Calories per 100g: 250-350 kcal

   – Nutrient Benefits: High in protein and can be stored for long periods (e.g., beef jerky, turkey jerky).

4. Energy Bars

   – Calories per 100g: 400-500 kcal

   – Nutrient Benefits: Balanced mix of carbohydrates, protein, and fats, along with added vitamins and minerals (choose bars designed for endurance and survival).

5. Peanut Butter

   – Calories per 100g: 588 kcal

   – Nutrient Benefits: High in fats and protein, easy to carry and store.

6. Chocolate

   – Calories per 100g: 500-600 kcal

   – Nutrient Benefits: High in fats and sugars for quick energy, along with some antioxidants (dark chocolate preferred).

 

Foraged Foods

1. Wild Edibles

   – Berries: Rich in carbohydrates and vitamins (e.g., blueberries, raspberries).

   – Nuts: High in fats and protein (e.g., acorns, walnuts).

   – Greens: Provide vitamins and minerals, though low in calories (e.g., dandelion greens, nettles).

2. Insects

   – Calories per 100g: 200-300 kcal

   – Nutrient Benefits: High in protein and fats (e.g., crickets, grasshoppers).

 

Priorities in Food Selection

1. Caloric Density

   – Focus on foods that provide the highest calories per gram to maximize energy intake without carrying too much weight.

2. Nutritional Balance

   – Aim for a mix of macronutrients: carbohydrates for quick energy, proteins for muscle maintenance and repair, and fats for long-term energy.

3. Storage and Preservation

   – Choose foods that have a long shelf life and are resistant to spoilage, such as dried or canned goods.

4. Ease of Preparation

   – Opt for foods that require minimal preparation or cooking, saving valuable time and resources.

 

Examples of Survival Food Kits

1. Emergency Ration Bars

   – These are specifically designed for survival situations, providing a balance of calories, fats, and sugars in a compact form.

2. Canned Fish and Meat

   – High in protein and fats, with long shelf life (e.g., canned tuna, sardines, chicken).

3. Dehydrated Meals

   – Lightweight and easy to prepare by adding water, providing a balanced meal (e.g., freeze-dried meals).

 

In a survival situation, focus on high-calorie, nutrient-dense foods that are easy to store and require minimal preparation. Nuts, seeds, dried fruits, jerky, energy bars, peanut butter, and chocolate are excellent choices. Additionally, foraging for wild edibles and insects can supplement your diet. Prioritising caloric density, nutritional balance, and ease of preparation will help ensure you maintain energy levels and improve your chances of survival.

 

Practical tips for outdoor nutrition

  1. Stay hydrated – Always carry enough water and consider electrolyte solutions for longer activities.
  2. Plan your meals – Prepare balanced meals and snacks that combine carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
  3. Pack lightweight, nutrient-dense foods – Choose trail mix, dried fruits, nuts, energy bars, and jerky (biltong).
  4. Monitor your energy levels – Adjust your food intake based on your activity level and how you feel.

Understanding and implementing basic nutrition principles helps us equip ourselves to enjoy and excel in our outdoor adventures.

Remember, fuelling your body correctly is just as important as the gear you carry, your body is your number one ‘tool’!

 

References

  1. Mayo Clinic (2023). ‘Nutrition and healthy eating: How many calories do you need?’ Available at: https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/expert-answers/calories/faq-20058429 (Accessed: 14 July 2024).
  2. National Health Service (NHS) (2023). ‘Calories: How many calories should you eat a day?’ Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/healthy-weight/calories-how-many-calories-should-you-eat-a-day/ (Accessed: 14 July 2024).
  3. Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health (2023). ‘The Nutrition Source: Carbohydrates.’ Available at: https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/carbohydrates/ (Accessed: 14 July 2024).
  4. Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health (2023). ‘The Nutrition Source: Protein.’ Available at: https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/protein/ (Accessed: 14 July 2024).
  5. Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health (2023). ‘The Nutrition Source: Fats.’ Available at: https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/fats-and-cholesterol/ (Accessed: 14 July 2024).
  6. World Health Organization (WHO) (2023). ‘Micronutrients.’ Available at: https://www.who.int/health-topics/micronutrients (Accessed: 14 July 2024).
  7. Live Science (2023). ‘How long can you go without food?’ Available at: https://www.livescience.com/how-long-can-you-go-without-food (Accessed: 14 July 2024).

These references provide reliable and comprehensive information to support the key points discussed in this article.

 

Disclaimer

The information provided in this article is for educational and informational purposes only and is not intended as professional advice. While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the information, the author and publisher make no representations or warranties of any kind, express or implied, about the completeness, accuracy, or suitability of the information contained in this blog for any purpose. 

Readers are advised to consult with a qualified healthcare professional or nutritionist for specific dietary needs and before making any significant changes to their diet or nutrition, especially in preparation for survival situations. The author and publisher shall not be held responsible for any adverse effects or consequences resulting from the use of any information, suggestions, or recommendations presented in this article.

In survival scenarios, conditions can vary widely and unpredictably. The strategies and food recommendations discussed are general guidelines and may not be suitable for every individual or situation. Always use personal judgment and consider your unique circumstances when applying any information from this article.

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5 ways to light a fire – From friction to flame

5 ways to light a fire – From friction to flame

5 ways to light a fire – From friction to flame

Fire has played a central role in human evolution, profoundly influencing the trajectory of our development. The mastery of fire by early humans, believed to be controlled first by Homo erectus around one to 1.5 million years ago, marked a significant turning point. It enabled our ancestors to cook food, deter predators, and survive colder climates, which in turn allowed for more complex social structures and improved communication skills. This control over fire not only facilitated dietary changes but also had a lasting impact on human physiology and culture, fostering advancements in technology and social organisation (Wrangham, 2009).

A camp fire at the side of a beautiful lake at sunset.

The ability to control fire is what initially set us apart from other mammals. We found ways to start, maintain and transport fire. This gave us greater flexibility in where we could live, what we could eat and how we could protect ourselves from wild animals. Perhaps one of the most under-rated aspects of fire in a survival situation is its ability to lift our spirits.

In a survival situation our priorities, in order of importance, are:

  1. Make a decision within the first three seconds. STOP (Stop, think, observe and plan).
  2. Secure air – Removal of ourselves from threat, first aid. We can’t live without air for longer than about three minutes.
  3. Shelter – Shelter from extreme environments is essential to prevent hypothermia in extreme cold to heat exhaustion in extreme heat. Hypothermia can kill within hours so we need to find or create shelter within the first three hours.
  4. Water – It is unlikely that we will survive for longer than three days without water 
  5. Food – Most people can survive for up to three weeks without food. Once personal safety, air, shelter and water have been secured our next priority is to find food.

Using fire in a survival situation initially falls under shelter. We can use fire to create warmth, boil water to make it safe to drink, cook food and to signal our position for rescue.

The key to a successful fire is preparation. The better the preparation the higher the chance of success. Not only do we need to be able to start a fire with an ignition source, we also need to be able to sustain the flame for as long as it is required, that could be minutes, hours or days. We need tinder (material that readily accepts a spark), kindling (thin, dry sticks that prolong the initial flame) and sustaining wood (thicker sticks that burn for longer). These should be collected and processed (prepared) before attempting to light a fire.

Here are five ways to start a fire

1. Open Flame: Lighters/matches

Using an open flame, such as from a lighter, is perhaps the most straightforward method to start a fire. Lighters are portable, reliable, and easy to use, making them a staple in modern survival kits. They work well in most weather conditions and can quickly ignite a variety of tinders, offering immediate fire access with minimal effort (McLean, 2000).

2. Spark: Ferro rod/flint and steel

A ferrocerium rod, often referred to as a “ferro rod,” produces sparks when scraped with a striker or the back of a knife blade. These sparks are extremely hot and capable of igniting a wide range of tinders. This method is highly reliable, works in all weather conditions, and is an essential component of many emergency and outdoor survival kits (Thompson, 2004). An alternative to a ferro rod is a more traditional flint and steel striker. A flint and steel is harder to master than a ferro rod but once mastered is a viable alternative.

3. Solar: Using a Lens

Solar ignition utilises the sun’s rays to start a fire, requiring a magnifying lens or any convex lens to focus sunlight onto a point on your tinder. The intense focal point increases the tinder’s temperature until it ignites. This method is effective in sunny conditions, offering a viable option when traditional methods are not available or desired (Gibson, 2011). A piece of glass, especially the concave bottom of a bottle, often found lying around, can be used for solar ignition.

4. Friction: Fire bow/ Bow drill

The fire bow or bow drill is a classic friction-based method to start a fire. It involves using a bow to rapidly spin a spindle against a fire-board, generating enough heat through friction to create an ember. This method is more advanced than the basic hand drill because the bow allows for continuous motion, reducing physical exertion and increasing heat generation efficiency. Wood selection is crucial, with softer woods like cedar or spruce often preferred for both the spindle and the board (Kochanski, 1987). An alternative friction fire can be made using cotton wool and charcoal by crushing the charcoal into small pieces and rolling these pieces up in a piece of cotton wool (an eye pad is ideal). Placing the cotton wool roll on a hard surface, sandwiching it between another hard surface (split log works well) and rolling the the one against the other vigorously creates heat friction that leads to combustion.

5. Chemical: Potassium Permanganate and Glycerin

A less common but highly effective method involves chemical reactions to ignite a fire. Mixing potassium permanganate with glycerin sets off an exothermic chemical reaction that ignites within seconds. This technique is valuable in survival situations as it requires minimal physical effort and can be ignited under varied environmental conditions, although the materials need to be handled with care and stored properly (Schulz, 1998).

Understanding and mastering various fire-starting techniques remains a fundamental survival skill that connects us to our ancestors. The ability to produce fire has been a catalyst for human development, from social evolution to technological advancements. By continuing to explore and teach these methods, we honour our past and ensure that these critical survival skills are preserved for future generations.

 

References

– Gibson, E. (2011). *Solar Fire Starting: Techniques and Applications*. Adventure Publications.

– Kochanski, M. (1987). *Bushcraft: Outdoor Skills and Wilderness Survival*. Lone Pine Publishing.

– McLean, S. (2000). *Modern Fire Devices*. Survival Techniques Journal, 8(1), 45-50.

– Schulz, H. (1998). *Chemical Fire Starting Methods*. Experimental Survival Techniques, 3(2), 112-118.

– Thompson, R. (2004). *Ferrocerium Rods in Survival Situations*. Essential Survival Gear, 9(4), 200-205.

– Wrangham, R. (2009). *Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human*. Basic Books.

Disclaimer

The information provided in this article is for educational and informational purposes only and is not intended as professional advice. While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the information, the author and publisher make no representations or warranties of any kind, express or implied, about the completeness, accuracy, or suitability of the information contained in this article for any purpose. The author and publisher shall not be held responsible for any adverse effects or consequences resulting from the use of any information, suggestions, or recommendations presented in this article.

In survival scenarios, conditions can vary widely and unpredictably. The strategies and recommendations discussed are general guidelines and may not be suitable for every individual or situation. Always use personal judgment and consider your unique circumstances when applying any information from this article.

The Rule of Threes – How to prioritise in a survival situation

The Rule of Threes – How to prioritise in a survival situation

The Rule of Threes – How to prioritise in a survival situation

The Rule of Threes is a guideline often used in survival training to prioritize essential needs in a critical survival situation. It outlines the basic timeframes within which a person can survive without specific resources.

Decision: STOP (Stop, think, observe and plan). Make a decision within 3 seconds. Do a rapid initial assessment of what has happened, where you are and what you need to do.

Air: You can survive only about 3 minutes without air. This priority addresses situations involving airway blockage (First Aid), the inability to breathe (under water) or toxic environments, especially where smoke or gases are involved. Immediate action must be taken to remedy the situation. If you manage to survive the first three minutes then chances are you’ll make it to the first three hours.

Shelter: Exposure to harsh conditions without adequate shelter can be fatal. You can survive approximately 3 hours without shelter in extreme environments, where protection from extreme heat (heat stroke) or cold (hypothermia) is crucial. If you manage to survive the first three hours then chances are you’ll make it to the first three days.

Water: Dehydration is a serious concern in survival scenarios. You can survive about 3 days without water, depending on the climate and your physical condition. Procuring and securing a drinkable water source is essential. Treating the water to ensure it does not make you sick is also essential. If you manage to survive the first three days then chances are you’ll make it to the first three weeks.

Food: While important, food is lower on the list of immediate survival priorities. You can survive approximately 3 weeks without food. In a survival situation, your focus should be on the procurement of air, shelter, and water before food. Once you have secured air, shelter and water you can then start foraging for food. Prioritise high calorie food where possible. The goal is to conserve energy. When we expend energy looking for food we need to ensure that the calorific reward from the food we eat exceeds the energy used to secure it in order to prevent an energy deficit. Food high in fat contains more calories than plant leaves as an example. If you manage to survive the first three weeks then chances are you’ll make it to the first three months.

Human connection (for mental health): In prolonged survival situations, being completely isolated or lacking interaction with other people can lead to psychological distress and mental health issues. Human beings are inherently social creatures, and lack of social contact for periods of longer than 3 months can affect mental and emotional well-being significantly. If you manage to survive the first three months then chances are you’ll make it to the first three years.

Habitual environment (community rebuilding: Over extended periods, the need to establish a stable community or adapt to a new environmental reality becomes critical. This involves forming a sustainable living situation that includes stable food sources, secure shelter, and a functioning societal structure to support life over years. This is about moving from mere survival to rebuilding and thriving in a new status quo and is achievable within the first 3 years. If you’ve managed to survive the first three years chances are you’ll be able to continue supporting yourself to survive as long as it takes to be rescued.

These extended applications of the Rule of Threes highlight the importance of psychological and societal needs alongside the basic physiological requirements for survival in long-term scenarios.

Understanding and applying this hierarchy can help manage decisions and actions effectively when faced with a survival situation, ensuring that the most critical needs are met first to increase the chance of survival.

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